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We 
South JImerican G)ars 

-of- 

Independence 




BY 
GERALD ELLIS CRONIN 

1st. LIEUTENANT 9th. V. S. INFANTRY. 



We 
South JImerican dOars 

-of- 

Independence 




BY 

GERALD ELLIS CRONIN 

1st. LIEUTENANT 9th. V. S. INFANTRY. 



ft 



'1 



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ICI.A447581 



m -8 1916 



* ■-. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN WARS 

OF INDEPENDENCE. 

By Gerald Ellis Cronin, 1st. Lieutenant ,9th U. S. Infantry. 



Introduction. 

THE independence of South America from Spanish and Portuguese rule 
was the natural result of the French and American revolutions. The colonial 
policy of the Peninsular countries was not of a nature to make loyal sub- 
jects out of the Latin-Americans. The country was taxed to the last penny 
until finally the revolts at Quito and Charcas in 1809 aroused the Spanish 
throne to the needs of their American possessions. A royal decree on Jan- 
uary 22 1809 announced that the colonies were an integral part of the mon- 
archy and as provinces were entitled to direct representation in the Cortes. 
A year later however the Regency at Cadiz abolished this liberal ordinance 
with the result that the revolutionary spirit spread through the continent. 
During 1810 revolts occured in Caracas, Bogota, Quito, Buenos Ayres,, 
Montevideo, Chili and Upper Peru (now Bolivia), Paraguay, Peru and Bra- 
ail remained peaceful. 

"The overthrow of Spanish rule in America is the results of two simul- 
taneous movements which originated in local disturbances in Venezuela and 
Buenos Ayres which spread gradually northward and so southward along 
the western coast of the continent developing leaders as they advanced and 
which finally united within the limits of the present republic of Ecuador to 
continue the advance together into the heights of Upper Peru until the 
attainment of a complete and perfect independence" — Paxson — Independence 
of the South American Republics. 

The patriot campaigns were very much like the first invasion by the con- 
quistadores. These undertook three separate invasions; the first in the 

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north; the second in Peru and subsequently Chili; the third in the provinces 
of the River Plate while on the plateau of Upper Peru was fought the first 
•ir.d last battles of the wars of independence. 

Comparatively few works have been written in this country on the wars 
of our fellow Americans with whom our commercial and perhaps our mili- 
tary relations are destined to become closer as time rolls on. Argentine has 
a compulsory military service and since the establishment of such a policy has 
been free from revolutions as well as foreign wars while Chile, Uruguay, 
and Colombia have followed in her footsteps. The A. B. C. republics (Agen- 
fcine, Brazil and Chile) have laid down Dreadnoughts and show every indi- 
cation of being able to preserve the integrity of their independence should it 
ever be threatened. 

The Northern campaign in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. 

The first movements towards independence in the northern part of South 
America occured in Venezuela. In 1796 several of the leaders of a republi- 
can conspiracy in Spain were exiled to La Guaira. While in prison there they 
had many sympathizers, and before long republican ideas began to permeate 
through Venezuela. However it was not until 1806 that the first attempt to 
free South America from the Spanish rule was attempted.! Its leader, Fran- 
cisco de Miranda sailed from New York in the ship "Leander" early in the 
year and an attempted landing was made at Ocumare near Puerto Cabello. 
Owing to the vigilance of the Spanish naval forces Miranda was defeated 
and sixty of his followers captured. Ten of these natives of North America 
were subsequently executed at Puerto Cabello. Miranda made a second at- 
tempt near Coro three months later and took the city. In this expedition 
he was aided by an English squadron under Lord Cochrane. The people of 
Venezuela however, were still loyal to Spain, and in a short time Miranda 
was compelled to retire to Jamaica.; - At this time Spain was an ally of Napo- 
leon in the wars that were convulcing Europe consequently England 
cast greedy eyes at South America. While helping Miranda off 
the Venezuala coast a large military and naval expedition was being fitted 
out at Cape Town, South Africa for the conquest of Buenos Ayres. Miranda 
who enjoyed the friendshin of the younger Pitt in England was largely 
-'nstrumental in the sending of this lli-fated expedition. This leader, a Vene- 
zuelan, had served under Rochambeau in the American revolution, and later 
rose to the command of brigade in the Republican Armies of France. After 
the rise of Napoleon he settled in England, and it was while there that he 
had worked out his plan for the freedom of Spanish America. To him is due 
the credit of inaugurating the movement. However Napoleon's invasion of 
Spain forced the hands of the South Americans, and in 1809 a revolt broke 
out in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) at Charcas which was suppressed with 
great cruelty by the Spanish General from Lima, Goyeneche. The cruelty of 
the loyalist troops which were native South Americans aroused the feelings of 
the Creoles of South America, and in 1810 the standard of revolt was raised 
throughout the continent. Peru, under the Viceroy Abascal remained loyal 

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and Portuguese Brazil gave no support to the movement. On April 1810 the 
Spanish authorities at Caracas were deposed and all the adjoining cities fol- 
lowed the Capital.An army was raised and sent against Coro, but the re- 
solute Spanish General Ceballos defeated it with great loss. After Venezue- 
la's declaration of independenc on July 5, 1811, Francisco Miranda returned 
from exile and took command of the patriot forces. The city of Valencia 
made a counter revolt against him, but he soon reduced the city to patriot 
authority. The campaign of 1812 went against the revolutionists. Monteverde 
the Spanish commander marching south from Coro, defeated the insurgents 
on all sides. A patriot expedition to the lower Orinoco was defeated, and 
finally on July 30th the royalist troops under the victorious Monteverde en- 
tered Caracas. This ended the first revolt. Miranda was captured at Puerto 
Cabello, and sent to Spain where he died. Meanwhile Colombia had revolted, 
so a number of Venezuelan refugees fled to the insurgent cities of that pro- 
vince. One of these was Simon Bolivar, whose service in the patriot cause, 
had cost them Puerto Cabello and he gave little promise of his future great- 
ness. A follower of Miranda, brave but unscrupulous, with an overwhelming 
egotism Simon Bolivar soon showed himself to be the man of the hour, plac- 
ing his sword at the disposal of the Cartagena Junta he was given com- 
mand of a small force operating on the Magdalena river. Soon afterwards 
he captured two small posts and the City of Ocana near the Venezuelan bor- 
der. The patriots at Pamplona appealed to him for aid and this suggested to 
Bolivar the wild plan of reconquering Venezuela. The Colombia revolt had 
been contemporaneous with that of Venezuela. In March 1811 the patriots 
had won the battle of Papayan, and had sent an expedition to the aid of 
Quito. Bolivar with a force of four thousand men moved across the Andes, 
defeated a royalist force enroute to Pamplona, and within fifty days the 
Venezuelan provinces of Merida and Trujillo were in his hands. The go- 
vernment of New Grenada who had authorized Boliver's movement into 
Venezuela, ordered him to return to Colombia, but Boliver pushed on to the, 
conquest of Barinas. Here he annihiliated the royalist forces and won a bril- 
liant victory near Valencia. fMonteverde's forces were wildly scattered so 
he fell back on Puerto Cabello. Valencia and finally Caracas fell into Boli- 
ver's hands on Aug. 4 1813. So thatjwithin ninety days he had defeated four 
thousand Royalists, and conquered the country from the Andes to the Capi- 
tal. Maricabo, Coro and the lower plains of the Orinoco remained Royalist. 
•In the East a small expedition under Marino captured and later held Matu- 
rin. Cumana was then besieged. Boliver hastened here to reenforce Marino, 
and the town surrendered. Meanwhile reenforcements of regular troops 
from Spain had arrived at Puerto Cabello, and Montverde had resumed the 
offensive. Boliver however was victorious at Las Trincheras but a reaction 
set in. The Spanish General Boves initiated a Royalist movement among the 
Llaneros while Ceballos moving from Coro defeated Boliver and captured 
Barquisimeto. The patriots under Campo Elias defeated Boves at Calabozo 
and after taking the town butchered every man. Boliver after his defeat by 
Ceballos joined Campo Elias and won the Ba+tle of Araure. TV Spaniards how- 

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ever steadily gained and Bolivar was reduced to the possession of Caracas and 
Valencia. .' Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta and moved on Caracas. The 
city was attacked but the assaulting column lost eight hundred men by the 
blowing up of the citadel by the patriots. This disaster, which was occa- 
sioned by a young Grenadan officer firing the magazine as the loyalists 
stormed the walls, saved the capital. After this event the patriots under 
Marino moved from the east and the redoubtable Boves attempted to cut 
them off but was defeated. Ceballos raised the siege of Valencia but in spite 
of all the brave efforts by the patriots the royalists were destined to trium- 
ph. On June 14, 1814, the patriot army was totally defeated at La Puerta and 
lost over half their number., Another crushing defeat at Aragua followed, Bo- 
livar was exiled to Colombia and soon became Captain General and took Bo- 
gota. General Rivas succeeded the Liberator and won an engagement but 
subsequently the Venezuelan army was wiped out. The crushing of the re- 
bellion cost the Royalist their famous General, Boves. The royalist troops 
were native Venezuelans so the second revolution in Veneztiela was carried 
on with all the horrors and cruelty of civil strife. 

The Peninsular war was over, the French troops had fallen back across the 
Pyrennes; Napoleon was still at Elba when Marshal Morillo with 10,000 
veterans sailed from Spain early in 1815 in seventy transports convoyed bj 
two ships-of-the-line and six frigates. The Spanish commander landed at 
Cumana in April and was joined by the royalists under Morales. With 8,000 
men the Marshal moved against Cartagena and laid siege to the town. Since 
Bolivar's departure the war in Colombia had gone on with varying success. 
An expedition to Pasto under a North American named McCauley had been 
boaten and the various states fell to fighting among themselves. Bogota 
however was successful in this contest and the advance of General Samano's 
army from Quito brought the quarrelling Columbians together. Samano's 
force of 2,000 men retook Popayan but was defeated at Calivio on January 
15, 1814. Pasto, like La Vendee was extremely royalist and when Marino's 
victorious troops invaded that province for the second time, after the battle 
of Calivio, they were totally defeated and their leader captured. This was the 
.situation in Colombia when Morillo began the famous siege of Cartagena. 

Cartagena had been the scene of many battles in the early history of Am- 
erica and it is the only place in South America where North American 
troops fought. In 1741 the British Admiral Vernon with a combined military 
and naval force attacked the city and was defeated. Among his troops was 
a contingent from the North American colonies which suffered severely. 
When Morillo besieged the city he found it too strong for direct assault 
so leaving the navy to shut off communication by sea he landed at Santa 
Marfca and crossed the Magdalena River thereby blockading the town on the 
land side. The garrison numbered four thousand men. In the previous year a 
counter revolution had held the city against the famous Bolivar prior to his 
Venezuelan drive. The besiegers were compelled to operate in a swampy coun- 
try and suffered greatly while starvation and disease decimated the defen- 
ders During the four and a half months' siege it is estimated that over 6,000 

(6) . 



died. The garrison was finally reduced to living on rats and hides, sentinels 
died at their posts- and -pestilence-was rife. The commander of the fortress 
at the last extremity drove out of the city over 2000 old men, women and 
children. Only a few of these wretched victims reached the Spanish lines 
alive. Finally taking advantage of the dispersal of the blockading fleet by 
a storm the survivors of the gorrsoin made their escape by sea. 

During the siege of Cartagena a Spanish army mo\ed along the Venezue- 
lan Andes and climbed to the Pamplona plateau and defeated the rebels who 
bad massacred all the Spanish non-combatants in the province. A force of 2500 
raw recruits from Bogota under Torres moved against Pamplona. The wily 
Spaniards fell back to Ocafia where they were reenforced and on renewing their 
advance defeated Torres on February 22, 1816. General Samano completely 
crushed the fragments of Torres' force a few days later. After taking Carta- 
gena Morillo marched to Bogota which fell without a struggle. The marshal 
treated the inhabitants with great cruelty and executions were wholesale. 
The most notable of these being that of Senorita Policarpa Salabarrieta 
who heroically faced a firing squad at Bogota by order of General Samano. 
Thus we find that Miss Cavell had a prototype a century ago in the quaint 
old city of the Northern Andes. 

While Morillo was uniformally successful in Colombia, affairs in Venezue- 
la were needing his attention. Among the guerilla bands that infested "the 
Orinoco country was that of Paez, a full-blooded Indian who had entered the 
war as a private and was destined to be the chief magistrate of Venezuela. 
After a successful night attack this soldier soon had a formidable force which 
was called "The Army of the Apure" This non-descript arm?/ began to 
terrorize the royalists and once more the tide began to turn. Eoliver return- 
ed from exile but was defeated and fled to Hay'ti. However a force sent by 
the exile leader under MacGregor took Valencia and Barcelona and aided by 
the negro chief, Piar, defeated Morales at Juncal. This disaster to his collea- 
gue compelled Morillo to return to Venezuela leaving Samano in command in 
Colombia.""! 

Late in 1816 Bolivar returned to Barcelona and took the field making a 
juncture with Piar near Angostura. Again the patriots were scattered by a 
force under La Torre which moved down the Apure and Orinoco rivers to 
Angostura. In April 1817 Piar got his routed forces together and defeated 
La Torre at San Felix. Bolivar with his indefatigable energy improvised a 
■fleet and after a quarrel with Piar had him executed on a charge of treason. 
By the end of 1817 the patriots were in commad of the whole line of rivers 
except San Fernando at the junction of the Apure and Orinoco Rivers. The 
plains were flooded and Morillo was helpless. Bolivar and Paez blockaded 
San Fernando and Morillo was defeated at Calbozo. Against the advice of 
Paez, Bolivar made a drive for Caracas but was defeated at La Puerta. San 
Fernando fell before the indian general but Morales drove the patriots 
hack only to receive a severe drubbing at the hands of Paez. 

At this juncture Bolivar was again in a precarious position but his re- 
sourcefulness seemed to be unending. Murillo's troops were without money, 

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arms or provisions. Bolivar secured the services of a number of English and 
Irish soldiers, veterans of the Peninsular war, for a bounty. This consisted 
of eighty dollars payable on enlistment and five hundred dollars payable at 
the close of the war. Morillo took the field against Paez but the latter, 
skilled in guerilla wafare soon wore out his antagonist. Bolivar leaving 
Paez to occupy Morillo determined to carry the war into New Grenada by 
invading the province of La Tunja. Samano at Bogota had sent an expedi- 
tion down the steep Cordillera slope against some guerillas in the Casanare 
plains so Bolivar decided to follow the Spaniards and assault Bogota directly 
from the Orinoco plains. With 2,000 natives and 500 British the Liber- 
tador followed up the Orinoco, Meta and Casanare to the latter's source at 
the foot of the Paya Pass. This pass leads directly into the valley of the Saga- 
moso, is high and difficult although only eighty miles long. The passage cost 
the patriots one hundred men and all the horses which perished from the 
cold. As can be expected Bolivar's men arrived at Sagamoso in a pitiable 
condition. The Spanish commander Barriero did not attack the worn-out 
troops at once so Bolivar had time to get his forces together and outman- 
oever his opponent. Tunja fell on July 25, and thus Bolivar was between 
Barriero and his capital, Bogota. The baffled Spaniard now made a furious 
attempt to regain his advantage but the Venezuelan commander had taken 
a position on the right bank of the Boyaca river. Here on August 7, 1819 
Bolivar won a decisive victory in which the Royalists were routed and Bo- 
gota fell on the following day. The battle of Bocaya wrecked the Spanish j 
army and Barriero was a prisoner. The viceroy fled and the forts on the 
iower Magdalena were soon in the hands of the patriots. 

However the war on the seacoast continued but Bolivar was master of the 
situation. Morillo was isolated in Venezuela where Paez had been defeated 
in an invasion of Barinas. Bolivar however was able to send troops south 
into Ecuador and a force against Cartagena. In November Morillo returned 
»:o Spain and was succeeded by La Torre. A six months' armistice was con- 
cluded but desultory operations continued. 

During this time the Liberator was not idle and La Torre had to face 
20,000 victorious troops while only able to place 9,000 in the field; Bolivar's 
army was distributed as follows: Montilla with 3,000 was besieging Carta- 
gena; a Grenadian force held the valley of the Magdalena; another force 
was in Ecuador; Bermudez with 2,000 men was moving on Caracas from the 
east while Bolivar and Paez threatened Valencia and Caracas. La Torre with 
o,000 at Carabobo and Bolivar moved against him with more than double 
that force. On the 23d the patriots seized the passes near Carabobo and the 
battle took place on the following day. Bolivar's force was in three divisions; 
the first under Paez consisted of the Casadores Britannicus or British Light 
Infantry 800 men and 100 of the Irish Legion, besides 2,200 natives, the 
second under Cadeno mustered 1800 men and the third led by Ambrosio 
Fiaza was made up of the Rifles, a regiment officered by Englishmen, and 
other troops to the number of 2,500. In crossing the Rio Aparito a number of 

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men perished from the attacks of the fierce man-eating perai. As Bolivar 
rode along the line the English troops gave three "hurrah's" that were heard 
a mile away. Bolivar sent Paez's division which contained the famous Lla- 
nero cavalry the rough riders of Venezuela, to envelop the enemy's left. The 
cavalry attack was twice repulsed but the British infantry held off La 
Torre's entire force. The Legion finally charged with the bayonet and al- 
though the odds were four to one the Spaniards broke and fled to Puerto 
Cabello where only a fragment arrived. In this battle over 600 English were 
killed. Carabobo marked the end of Spanish dominion in the north and Cara- 
cas and Cartagena soon fell. Bolivar now turned his attention to Ecuador. 

In one of the Venezuelan campaigns General Paez distinguished himself by a 
capture of a flotilla of gunboats by cavalry. The troopers dashed into the alli- 
gator infested waters of the Apure and carried the vessels by boarding. This 
feat has two parrellels in history, one Psichegru's cavalry capturing the ice- 
bound Dutch fleet in the Texel during the French revolution and General For- 
rest's capture of two Union gunboats on the Tennessee river inl864. The war in 
Colombia and Venezuela soon ended. Panama declared its independence of 
Spain in November 1821. In October 1822 Cumana fell but Morales retook 
Maracaibo and Coro. The Spanish commander however was unable to hold 
chese towns and after his naval forces were defeated on Lake Maracaibo in 
July 1823 he surrendered. Puerto Cabello was taken by assault on November 
8 and the long war of the Venezuelan independence was at an endT^ c- 

Early in 1822 Bolivar moved against Loyalist Pasto and sent Sucre by sea 
to Guayaquil to take Quito from the south. San Martin was in Peru and the 
two armies of liberation were getting closer together. On April 7 Bolivar 
fought the royalists at Bambona and by inciting his men to reckless and 
desperate chagres he remained master of the bloody field. After eight days 
he was compelled to fall back on Popayan with his wooded. The Ecuador 
campaign was now on. Lord Cochrane's fleet had kept Guayaquil open for 
the patriots and San Martin sent a division of 1200 men by sea to Guaya- 
quil to reenforce Sucre. The latter had been unsuccessful in his first ad- 
vance on Quito but now fortune favored him. Bolivar's activity in Pasto for- 
ced the Spaniards to evacuate Cuenca and thus lure Sucre to the vicinity of 
Quito. Sucre however outmanoevered them and secured a commanding posi- 
tion on the slopes of the great volcano Pichincha. His army numbered 2,900 
men. On May 24, 1822 the Spanish army was totally defeated, the Columbian 
infantry under General Cordoba doing great work with the bayonet. The 
enemy had 400 killed and 200 wounded while on the following day 160 offi- 
cers and 1,100 men surrendered. A few scattered detachments escaped down 
the eastern slope of the Andes to the headwaters of the Amazon and drifted 
down that great river to the Atlantic. After the victory of Pichincha Bolivar 
moved against Pasto which surrendered and reached Quito on June 16. Co- 
operation with San Martin for the conquest of Peru was now possible but ano- 
ther great leader in the person of Sucre was destined to complete the inde- 
pendence of South America. 

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The Southern Campaigns in Argentine, Uruguay, Paraguay and Chile. 

Early in the nineteen century England cast coveteous at both the Dutch 
possessions of South Africa and the Spanish possessions of South America. 
In one she was destined to succeed and in the other to fail. Shortly after the 
capture of the Cape of Good Hope in 1805 a combined military and naval ex- 
pedition under General Beresford and Admiral Sir Home Riggs Pop ham 
sailed across the Atlantic to the Rio de la Plata. On June 25, 1806 this force 
landed a few miles south of the city of Buenos Ayres. The Spanish viceroy, 
Sobremonte fled and two days later the British flag waved over Buenos 
Ayres. The inhabitants however did not support the invaders but were extreme- 
ly hostile so that before long the invaders were practically besieged. Liniers, 
a French officer in the Spanish service, gathered together at Montevideo a 
force of 1000 regular troops and a small amount of artillery. This force 
moved west across the Plate into Argentine where hosts of volunteers 
joined it. Buenos Ayres was besieged and after some hard street fighting 
Beresford was forced to surrender on August 12. The Argentines were 
greatly encouraged by their victory. Popham's fleet kept up a blockade and 
early in 1807 landed 4,000 troops under General Auchmuty at Maldonado, 
Crugusy. After an eight days' siege Montevideo was taken on February 8, 
reenforcements to the number of 12,000 under General Whitlocke scon ar- 
rived from the Cape and moved on Buenos Ayres, the Argentines under 
Liniers retreating before him. The British arrived outside the city on July 
5 and advanced into the city, General Wjhitlocke ordered his troops to use 
nothing but the bayonet. As the British advanced through the streets they 
were shot down from the housetops on all sides. Strict adherence to the or- 
ders of their commander led to the total defeat of the invaders and their 
subsequent surrender. General Whitlocke signed a capitulation in which he 
agreed to evacuate both Buenos Ayres and Montevideo within two months. 
The defeated troops were withdrawn and on his return to England 
General Whitlocke was court-martialed and cashiered. Although still loyal to 
Spain the defeats of the British showed the Argentines that they could de- 
fend themselves. 

During the revolt at Charcas in 1809 the viceroy of Buenos Ayres, Cis- 
neros, sent 1,000 men to aid in suppressing the revolt. The cruelties perpe- 
trated in this campaign by the royalists coupled with the French successes 
in Spain aroused the spirit of independence in the Creoles and on May 25, 
1810 the viceroy Cisneros, was deposed and a junta still maintaining alle- 
giance to Ferdinand VII was appointed. The first attack of the patriots was 
directed against Cordoba with 1,200 men under Ocampo and Balcarce. The 
royalists were commandered by Liniers, the hero of the. English invasion and 
after putting up a feeble fight were captured. The victorious troops execu- 
ted all the royalist officers including Liniers. Upper Peru was invaded and 
following the victory of Suipacha on November 7, the inhabitants joined the 
revolt. 

Another army of 1,000 men under General Belgrano invaded Paraguay. 

(10) 



After crossing the Parana at Candelaria the Buenos Ayrians met with resis- 
tance from the natives on all sides. Inflamed by natural hatred for the Ar- 
gentines the Paraguayans finally defeated Belgrano on Janaury 19, 1811 and 
he was forced to surrender on March 9. Paraguay declared its independence 
cf Spain on October 12 following. Under Dr. Francia, Paraguay remained 
in a state of complete seclusion and took no part in South American affairs 
until late in the fifties. 

In Uruguay the patriot leader, Artigas, raised the standard of revolt while 
General Belgrano won the battle of Piedras on May 18 and besieged Monte- 
video in conjunction with Artigas. So far the w ar in Upper Peru had beep, 
successful but the Argentines suffered in health on account of the high alti- 
tude. The Viceroy of Peru with a large force of Indians attacked and de- 
feated the patriots at Huaqui on June 20 and the Spanish power became su- 
preme in that region, while an invasion of Argentine began. Belgrano was 
recalled from Montevideo, Puerreydon was placed in command at Buenos 
Ayres while a Brazilian force invaded Uruguay and dorve out Artigas. The 
outlook for the patriots was dismal. However Belgrano went north to Tucu- 
man where he received orders to fall back before the Viceroy. The Argen- 
tine commander disobeyed and remaind at Tucuman. Belgrano although with- 
out military education showed great generalship by letting the enemy get in 
his rear and force them to attack him. The battle at Tucuman was a great 
victory and the gaucho cavalry drove the royalists back to Upper Peru where 
Belgrano soon followed. Uruguay was again invaded and the Brazilian troops 
withdrew. An Argentine force under Rondeau was sent to reenferce Artigas. 

On December 31, 1812 the Spaniards were defeated at Cerrito and Monte- 
video, was once more besieged,- The Uruguayan leader later quarrelled with 
Rondeau and withdrew from the siege. The campaign in Upper Peru contin- 
ued with varying successes and defeats. The Spaniards under Tristan lost the 
battle of Salta on February 20, 1813. Later in the year Belgrano was de- 
feated at Vilapugio and Ayohuma. It may be stated that the patriot defeats 
were due to the better disciplined forces of the Viceroy and the fact that they 
bad violated their paroles in attacking the Argentines. Th«se two disasters 
cost the patriot leader his command and he was succeeded by Jose de San 
Martin. 

This famous soldier a native of Argentine had served for many years ir. 
the Spanish army and had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel. He ar- 
rived at Buenos Ayres with Carlos Alvear in the British ship "George Can- 
ning" on March 9, 1812. He offered his services to the Buenos Ayres junta 
and was employed in raising a force of horse grenadiers which were later en- 
gaged in operations against the Spanish naval forces operating in the River 
Plate. While on this duty he won a brilliant little engagement on February 
3, 1813. On arriving at the northern frontier he managed to hold off the vic- 
torious royalists and restore confidence to the shattered patriots. During the 
service at Buenos Ayres he had recruited and organized some regiment' 
and made military efficiency and not political preferment the basis of retention 

(10 



in the service. He foresaw that to reach the stronghold of the Viceroy in 
Peru by the Bolivian route was foredoomed to failure by reason of the na- 
ture of the country as well as thegreat distance of more than 400 leagues 
from a base. In addition to fighting the Spaniards the different political lea- 
ders of Argentine fought among themselves. San Martin turned the active 
control of the army over to Alvear and retired to Mendoza as governor of 
the province of Cuyo. 

San Martin had conceived a bold plan for the liberation of South America 
and his command of the remote province was his first move. The project was 
to invade Chile by crossing the Andes over the Uspallata Pass and after de- 
feating the Spaniards to proceed north along the Pacific coast to Peru. The 
Chilians had revolted in 1810 under Jose Miguel Carrera who was replaced 
by Bernardo O'Higgins and a truce was finally negotiated with the Viceroy 
at Talca on May 5, 1314. Diesenticns later broke out between O'Higgins and 
the three Carrera brothers so Abascal, the Viceroy, repudiated the truce and 
invaded Chile. .The movement of the Vicrcy made the patriots lay aside 
their differences r.nd unite but O'Higgins was defeated at Rancagua on Octo- 
ber 1, 1814. His army was routed and only a few including O'Higgins es- 
caped across the Andes and joined San Martin. Like Carnot, Kitchener or 
Von Hindenburg San Martin was an organizer of victory. The regiments 
which he had organized at Buenos Ayres and O'Higgins refugees formed the 
nucleus of the new army that was destined to accomplish so much. Puer- 
reyedon at Buenos Ayres sent a corps of manumitted negro slaves to Men- 
doza as a reenforcement. Although civil war raged in the eastern part of 
Argentine San Martin was undeterred from his task. For nearly three years 
he labored, drilling, instructing, officering, levying taxes, collecting provi- 
sions and munitions as well as all the other multitudinous details that go 
tc make up an army. Finally when ready to take the field San Martin had 
4000 men under his command highly trained and disciplined. 

Meanwhile the war in Uruguay and on the Bolivian frontier went on. 
Buenos Ayres had improvised and efficient navy comprising three purchased 
vessels, the "Hercules", "Zefiro" and "Nancy". These ships commanded by 
Admiral William Brown defeated the Spanish fleet and blockaded Monte- 
video. The city soon surrendered to the besieging army under Alvear but the 
victorious troops soon had a civil war on their hands The Uruguayans under 
General Rivera defeated the Argentines at Guayabos and Montevideo was 
evacuated. Artigas in one of his campaigns provoked a war with Brazil by 
invading the territory of the Seven Missions. A well-equipped Portugeuse 
army then invaded Uruguay and after defeating Artigas in several battles 
took Montevideo. Uruguay remained in Brazilian possession until 1828. In 
the nort hthe patriots under Rondeau again invaded Bolivia but were defea- 
ted at Sipe-Sipe. Fortunately however the gaucho cavalry under Guimes 
kept the royalists from advancing south. 

Finally all was ready at Mendoza for the 150-mile drive across the Andes 
to Santiago. Sleds were made for the guns; spies had cleverly disseminated 

(12) 



false information as to the route to be taken and on January 17, 1817 San 
Martin "set out on one of the most extraordinary marches that history has 
known. Indeed his passage of the Andes is considered unique by military ex- 
perts." The army was divided into two divisions; one, the smaller, under 
O'Higgins crossed the Uspallata Pass while the stronger under San Martin 
took the more difficult pass of Pasto. The movements of both commands were 
so well timed that they would reach the open ground of the Aconcagua val- 
ley together. The Spanish troops at the Uspallata Pass were brushed away 
by the advancing Argentines. Had the enemy attempted to hold this pass 
with even larger forces they would have been bottled up by the San Martin 
division leaving a small force at the mouth of the Canyon. The Spanish com- 
mander, Marco, attempted to driye back the invaders but his advance guard 
suffered a check so he retreated leisurely toward Santiago. Thus San Martin 
was able to unite his forces and after a four clays rest he resumed his ad- 
vance. Remarkable to relate that after a passage over two of the loftiest 
and steepest passes in the world the Argentine General scarcely found it ne- 
cessary to refit. The Spanish force, two thousand strong, were Peninsular 
veterans under 'a skillful and resolute commander. Their position was a 
strong one on the southern side of the transverse range that separates San- 
tiago from the . Aconcagua valley. It was admirable for a stubborn defense. 
The high road to Santiago descended down a narrow valley which opened 
out into the larger valley at right angles to it. In front of their position the 
narrow mouth was commanded by artillery and on a hill side there was room 
to deploy infantry and cavalry so that the Argentines could be enfiladed 
from this position before they could deploy. San Martin like Bolivar was re- 
sourceful to an extraordinary degree and he located an abandoned road which 
threatened the Spaniards' left flank. He sent O'Higgins with 1800 men along 
this road and at 11:00 a. m. on February 12 the attack opened. O'Higgins' 
f.rst attack was repulsed but San Martin ordered the Chilian commander to 
make another attack which was supported by frontal attack under San Mar- 
tin himself. This was successful and the position was carried at the point of 
the bayonet. The Spaniards lost all their guns and half their force was either 
tilled or captured. The patriot loss was 12 killed and 120 wounded. Chaca- 
buco was a decisive battle in the history of South America and changed the 
entire military situation in the south. Once more Chile rose in revolt and 
Brown's squadron- came around to the Pacific but were unable to cope with 
the superior naval forces o f the Viceroy. One o f the Argentine ships, the 
corvette "Argentina" carried the war to the distant Philippines and block- 
aded Manilla for several days in March 1818. 

After Chacabuco the surviving Spaniards fled to Valparaiso and embarked 
for Callao. O'Higgins became dictator and a vigorous campaign against the 
'•emaining Spanish troops in Chile began. In April O'Higgins sent a force of 
1,000 men under Las Heras against Talcahuano and Valdivia. Abascal had 
sent back to Chile the survivors of Chacabuco who were now commanded by 
Ordonez and Las Heras fought an indecisive action at Gavilan near Concep- 
cion with these troops. 

U3) 



in January 1818 four Spanish ships mounting 230 guns arrived at Talca- 
huano and landed 3400 well equipped troops. San Martin had reorganized 
his forces and now had 9,000 men. The Talcahuano army moved up to Con- 
eepcion where O'Higgins was. The latter in obedience to San Martin's orders 
retreated laying waste the country as he fell back. Near Talca he was joined 
by San Martin and the retreat stopped. The patriot leader made a dash for 
the Rio M£ul<?"and the Spaniards fell back. The rival forces were now moving 
along parrellel lines while the patriot cavalry assailed the Spanish rear. On 
the afternoon of March 10 the enemy took up an excellent position at Talca 
\- here their west flank was protected by stretch of broken ground called the 
Concha Rsyada. The patriots followed closely but night intervening the ac- 
tion stopped and the troops went into camp. At 9 n m. the Chilean camp 
was attacked and the left and centre routed with the loss of all their guns. 
The right wing under San Msrtin was not engaged but its commander hasten- 
ed to the relief of O'Higgins who had been wounded.The rest of the command 
in the absence of any orders held a council of war and elected Las Heras as 
eommander. That officer brought the command off the fatal field in good or- 
der. The enemy was too badly dispersed to pursue so San Martin hastened 
to Santiago and in ten days had an army of 5,000 in the field. 

The victorious Spaniards under Osorio continued their advance, so San 
Martin having secured his line of retreat across the Andes sallied out of San- 
tiago gainst the enemy. The Chilian line was along a low stretch of chalk 
hills seven miles southwest of the capital. In front was another line of hills 
separated from the first by a narrow stretch of ground. To the west ran the 
~oad from Santiago to Valparaiso. Like the position of the Uunon army at 
Gettysburg this one was admirably adapted for a defensive battle. Osorio 
moved to secure the position and on the morning of April 5, the attack 
opened. The Chilians had two divisions on the firing line as well as a reserve 
on their eastern flank. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the western 
wing dashed across the valley ar ; d up the hills that commanded the Valpa- 
raiso road. The patriot cavalry isolated the west wing of the enemy by de- 
feating the Spanish cavalry. The other Chilian division made a frontal at- 
tack but were repulsed. The Spanish infantry however were flanked by the 
reserve division which now came into action and drove the enemy back in 
confusion. The shattered wings of Osorio's force were reunited at the Espejo 
farm and offered a desperate defense. Like Hugomont at Waterloo or the 
Chew Mansion at Germantown the Espejo farm was carried after great slaugh- 
ter and carnage. Maipo was the hardest fought battle in the wars of Inde- 
pendence. Out of a total of 5,000 the royalists lost 1,200 killed, 800 wounded 
:rnd 2 r 200 prisoners. The remainder, 800 men, escaped to Talcahuano. San 
Martin lost more than a fifth of his command, the negro troops that had 
fought so well at Chacabuco losing over half their number. O'Higgins pur- 
sued the enemy to Talcahuano but the Spaniards were able to hold him off. 

San Martin returned to Buenos Ayres to negotiate a loan and purchase a 
navy. After some difficulties he managed to procure $200,000 and the loan 

(14) 



of two Argentine war vessels from Puerreyedon. On the Pacific the Spanish 
fleet had control of the sea thereby keeping the patriots confined to the land. 
To invade Peru it was necessary to gain command of the sea. So apparent 
was this to the Chilians that when an British East Indianman carrying 44 
guns touched at Valparaiso the treasury was emptied to purchase her. Dur- 
ing the absence of San Martin in Buenos Ayres O'Higgins procured two Am- 
erican built privateers and a second English vessel. The Chiliean squadron 
of four ships under Blanco Encalada sailed South to intercept a convoy that 
was being convoyed around the Horn by a 50-gun ship. Off the Horn the 
Spaniards got separated; the troop-ships reached Callao in safety but the fri- 
gate touched at Talcahuano and was captured by the Chileans. Meanwhile 
Thomas Cochrane Earl of Dundoiiald, a famous British naval officer entered 
the Chilian service and under his command the new navy harried the coasts 
of Ecuador and Peru, bombarded Callao several times and made possible the 
first communications between Bolivar and San Martin. In September Lord Co- 
chrane with eight vessels met the Spanish fleet but to his dismay learned that 
his rockets were filled with sand instead of powder. The Chilians had em- 
ployed their Spanish prisoners as munition workers. 

Prior to invading Peru San Martin sent Balcarce with 3,500 men into 
southern Chile. Chilian, Conception and Talcahuano were taken r.rcl Osorio 
was soon conned to Valdivia. This stronghold, the last held by Spam on the 
mainland, was captured by Lord Cochrane with a force of 250 soldiers and 
two of his vessels. The garrison of the island of Chiloe however did not sur- 
render until 1826. 



The Peruvian and Bolivian Campaigns. 

By the year 1820 Peru was the last stronghold of Spanish power in South 
America. Under Abascal republicanism was kept at low ebb and he had an 
efficient force of native troops at his disposal. These troops, chiefly Indians 
and half-breeds although anti-Spanish in thought and feeling proved to be 
excellent soldiers under Spanish officers. The revolt at Charcas in 1809 al- 
ready alluded to had been suppressed with great cruelty and the authority of 
Spain was undisputed. In 1814 an Indian uprising under Pumacagua in the 
Cuzco region cut the Spanish troops, operating against the Argentines, off 
from Lima. Ramirez, their commander hastened up from southern Bolivia, 
drove the Indians to Arequipa and then back to the Bolivian pleaeau where 
the revolt was ended at the bloody battle of Humachiri. 

Bolivia, like Virginia in our Civil War was the great battle ground of 
these wars. For sixteen years the struggle raged on the great pleateau. 
Until the coming of San Martin it had been the plan of Buenos Ayrcs to 
reach Lima through Upper Peru. After the defeat of the Argentines at Vi- 
iumna General Pezuela was preparing to invade the southern plains when the 
uews of Chacubuco threw him on the defensive. 



(15) 



In 1820 San Martin with a new army was ready to move. Cochrane had the 
fleet of Spain under the snelter of the guns of Callao. It mustered three fri- 
gates and thirteen smaller ships mounting 330 guns while Cochrane had only 
three frigates and three brigs mounting 180 guns. On September 7, the Chi- 
lean fleet convoying San Martin's army of 4,500 men dropped anchor at Pis- 
co 150 miles south of Lima. After landing San Martin sent 1200 men under 
Arenales to ascend the Cordillera and threaten Lima from the rear. A royal- 
ist force under Gen. O'Eeilly was sent against Arenales and was defeated 
near Cerro de Pasco. The patriot commander then moved by sea to Huacho 
seventy miles north of Lima, here with a force of 3,000 men San Martin pur- 
sued a course of masterely inactivity much to the disgust of Cochrane whose 
activities kept the Spanish fleet within the shelter of Callao and kept up 
communication with Guayaquil. It was during this period that the daring 
Englishman cut out the frigate "Esmeralda" at Callao and later occupied 
Tacna. Meanwhile Pezuela had become Viceroy and his native levies began 
to desert to the patriots. Fearing defeat the new viceroy did not attack San 
Martin and as a result his resignation was demanded f La Serna became vice- 
roy but events dragged along until July 6, 1821 when the Spaniards evacua- 
ted Lima, retiring on Jauja. On the ninth San Martin entered the city and 
proclaimed the independence of Peru on the 15th. Callao was evacuated on 
Sept. 21 and S. Martin again rested his command and awaited the coming 
of Bolivar. Cochrane meanwhile had quarrelled with the Argentine general 
and threw up his commission and entered the service of Brazil. In July 1822 
San Martin went to Guayaquil and had his famous conference with Bolivar. 
The latter's ambition was a united South America but San Martin did not 
encourage the Liberator's project on account of the great diversity that pre- 
vailed among the different countries. The hero of Chacabuco soon realized 
that he could not work in harmony with the Venezuelan and he relinquished 
his command. On returning to Buenos Ayres he found a condition of civil war 
prevailing and he soon retired to Europe. Here he spent the remainder of 
his days neglected and forgotten by the countries he had served so well. He 
died at Boulogne, France, in August 1850. 

Later in 1822 Alvarado with 4,000 men was sent south and an attempt 
was made to reach Lake Titicaca and get between the Spanish armies in 
Upper Peru. The Spanish commander Valdez acted with great energy and 
a oved against Alvarado and defeated him at Moquegua, less than a third of 
the patriots escaped. The news of this defeat caused a revolt against the 
Junta at Lima and Santa Cruz succeeded Arenales as commander of the pa- 
triots. Bolivar in Ecuador was called upon for aid and he sent 6,000 troops. 
A Peruvian force of 7,000 was also raised. In May 1823 Santa Cruz sailed t 
southern Peru with 5,000 men and marched on La Paz. He defeated the 
Spanish troops, but was caught between two of their columns and routed on 
August 25. Canterac, the Spanish commander moved against Sucre at Lima. 
The patriot general evacuated the city and fell back to Callao. After holding . 
Lima for a few weeks retreated and Bolivar landed at Callao on September 

(16) 



1. The defeat of Santa Cruz left Bolivar supreme in Peru but the end was 
not yet in sight. On account of not having received their pay the garrison 
of Callao mutinied and placed the Castle and the city in the hands of th'e 
Spaniards. The troops were Argentines and Chileans of San Martin's old 
?rmy. At this time a mutiny broke out among the royalist leaders in Upper 
Peru. Olaneta, an Argentine in the Spanish service quarrelled with La Serna 
and the latter sent a force under Valdez against him. Meanwhile Bolivar fell 
back from Lima to Trujillo 300 miles to the north. Using Jauja as a base 
Canterac began to move north while Bolivar with 9000 men strong in cavalry 
moved rapidly across the Cordillera to Pasco. From there he pushed on to 
the western shore of the Lake of Reyes to Junin where he got in touch with 
the royalists on August 6, 1824. Putting his infantry in a defensive position 
he attacked with his cavalry commanded by Suarez. Canterac, the ablest of 
the Viceroy's generals, led his troopers against the patriots who fell back 
but left a squadron concealed in the flank of a defile. When the Spaniards 
entered the defile inn pursuit of the retreating patriots this concealed force 
struck them in the rear and after cutting them to pieces drove the enemy 
frcm the field. Canerac fell back to Cuzco 500 miles distant. Like Talca, Bull 
Run or Shiloh there was no pursuit by the victorious army. Bolivar turned 
ihe army over to Sucre and returned to Lima. 

General Sucre, who first came into prominence during the Columbian cam- 
paigns, was now thirty-one years of age. Already he had won the battle of 
Pichincha and more laurels waited him in Upper Peru which had been the 
graveyard of so many military reputations. La Serna with 10,000 men moved 
so rapidly against Sucre that the latter was unable to concentrate all his 
forces. The patriot's line of retreat was threatened but the royalists were 
forced to march in a circle while Sucre, having united his forces cut along 
the radius and came within sight of his antagonist as the latter got bet- 
ween him and the Jauja road. At this time there were royalists' risings ia 
the north and Sucre's position was a desperate one as he was cut off from 
all reenforcements and supplies. For three days the rival armies marched 
and countermarched among the ravines on the west bank of the Pampas 
river. Finally the American commander took the bold resolution of crossing 
the deep gorge of the river to the high grounds on the other side. The main 
body got over safely but the rear guard was attacked and Sucre lost one of 
his two guns and was cut off from the Jauja road. Here he decided to give 
battle and on December 8 the two armies were lined up on the plain of Aya- 
cucho. To the left of the plain was a deep ravine and to the right was a val- 
iey impracticable for fighting. Sucre's force lay at the eastern extremity of 
the plain. Behind him there was no cover for reforming so it was victory or 
annihiliation. The patriot force mustered 6,000 against 8,500 and one gun 
against eleven. 

The morning of December 9 dawned radiantly. Sucre deployed and riding 
down the line exclaimed. "Soldiers, on your deeds this day depends the fate 
of South America." A striking similiarity to Togo's signal at Tsushima. The 

07) 



Spanish columns descended in perfect order in front of the heights. The pa- 
triots advanced and soon the crashing of musketry and bayonet fighting be- 
came general. On the left the Columbian infantry under Cordoba withstood 
La Serna's assault. The cavalry charged but a countercharge drove them 
back. The royalists' left was soon dispersed and Cordoba led his division up 
the heights spiked the artillery and crushed the enemy's centre. The Spanish 
right under Valdez outflanked the Peruvian division but the battle was al- 
ready decided. Valdez was cut to pieces and only Canterac's reserve pre- 
served any organization. La Serna was killed and Canterac was forced to 
surrender that afternoon. The battle lasted less than eighty minutes but the 
freedom of South America was assured. Only Upper Peru and Callao re- 
mained in the hands of the royalists. The invasion of Upper Ueru began and 
on Christmas day the patriot advance guard under Gamarra entered Cuzco. 
Sucre now rested his army and prepared to move against OJaneta who was 
still operating on the Argentine border against Arenales. [The camxsaign of 
1825 was short and little or no fighting occurred. In March a Peruvian force 
under Miller, one of San Martin's subordinates in the first invasion of Peru 
took La Paz. Olaneta retired and in a battle with some of his own men who 
had mutinied under Medina Celi at Tumusla was killed on April 1, 1825. This 
was the last battle of the wars of independence. On April 25 Miller marched 
into Potosi and on January 19, 1826 the garrison of Callao surrendered and 
Spanish rule in South America was at an end. 

Brazil and Uruguay. 

The independence of the great Portuguese colony of Brazil forms a se- 
parate chapter in the history of South America. Its struggle was brief and 
unmarked by the excessive cruelty which characterized so many of the wars 
of that period. The first mutterings of republicanism in Brazil were heard 
in 1709 just a century before the revolt of the Spanish colonies. In that year 
the Portuguese government made Recife an independent city. This caused 
great discontent and a force of 2,000 Pernambucanos invaded the indepen- 
dent city. On the successful termination of the revolt one of its leaders, Ber- 
nardo Vieira, the best soldier of the colony, proposed that a republic be foun- 
ded on the plan of Venice. This was probably the first time that a republic 
was advocated on American soil. The proposition was favorably received but 
the time had not yet come for a project of this nature to materialize. A re- 
bellion had broken out in Maranhao in 1684 under Manoel Beckman. Con- 
temporaneous with the Recife affair was the revolt of the Emboadas, while 
in 1710 occured the Olinda revolt. These affairs were suppressed very severe- 
ly. 

The North American wars of Independence suggested to a few Brazilians 
the possibility of their obtaining their independence from Portugal. In 1785 
a dozen students formed a republican club at Coimbra and one of their num- 
ber wrote to Thomas Jefferson, then minister to France asking for American 
aid. Jefferson was interested but replied that nothing could be done until 

(18) 



the Brazilians themselves rose in revolt. A young sergeant nicknamed Tira- 
dentes attempted to foment a revolt among the troops stationed at Ouro 
Preto but he was betrayed into the hands of the authorities and was hanged 
and quartered at Rio Janeiro. 

In 1807 when Portugal was invaded by the French the royal family fled 
to Brazil convoyed by a British squadron under Sir Sydney Smith and ar- 
rived at Bahia on January 21,1808. Here they rested and proceeded to Rio 
where they landed on March 7. The revolutionary outbreaks in Spanish colo- 
nies received no support from Brazil. The King sent an army into French 
Guiana and held the country until the peace of Vienna in 1815. The Prince 
Regent aided Elio the governor of Uruguay with men and money and the 
Uruguayans retaliated by invading the provinces of Sao Paulo and Rio 
Grand du Sul. A force of 5,000 Portug uese and a Brazilian contingent were 
sent against the invaders. Uruguay was conquered down to the Rio de la 
Plata and the Agentine state of Misiones invaded. In 1812 the Brazilian 
troops left Uruguay. In 1815 Brazil was proclaimed a kingdom and united to 
Portugal. 

Meanwhile taxation in the new kingdom grew apace and in 1817 the Bra- 
zilian garrison at Pernambuco revolted. A combined military and naval forcr 
from Rio soon reduced the rebellious city. More uprisings followed while in 
1820 Uruguay was again invaded, and Tacurembo and Arroyo Grande were 
occupied. The king decided to return to Portugal and did so leaving his son 
Dom Pedro as Regent. In the following year a royal decree ordered the re- 
turn of the Regent but the people who were greatly attached to the young 
ruler implored him to remain. The Po rtuguese troops threatened to carry 
off the Regent by force should he persist in remaining in Brazil. The native 
troops surrounded them however and demanded that they embark for Portu- 
gal. To appease t he clamor Pedro ordered the embarkation to proceed and 
on December 10, 1821 the evacuation of the Brazilian capital was accom- 
plished. 

declared for independence and the Portuguese garrison sailed for Europe. On 
ged along until September 7, 1822 whe n Dom Pedro decided on his "Indepen- 
dence or Death" policy. Events followed thick and fast. On October 12 the 
Empire of Brazil was proclaimed and the Regent assumed the title of Dom 
Pedro I. Royalist Bahia was besieged and Lord Cochrane was invited to take 
command of the Imperial fleet. After arriving in Brazil in March 1823 he 
took the small Brazilian fleet to B?hia which was evacuated after a few 
skrmishes. Cochrane pursued the retreating fleet and captured more than 
half of the transports. Later aided by Grenfell he forced the surrneder of 
Maranhao and Para. In conquered Uruguay the commander at Montevideo 
declared for independence and the Portugeuse garrison sailed for Europe. On 
August 29, 1825 the independence of Brazil was recognized by Portugal and 
the last Portuguese troops evacuated the country. 

However the new Emperor had two wars on his hands; one the revolt at 
Pernambuco and the other in Uruguay. The Pernambucanos were 

(19) 



once more besieged by land and sea and the city surrendered on September 
17. The Uruguayan revolt under Lavelleja commenced on April 19 and af- 
ter twenty five days the Brazilians were confined to Montevideo and Colonia. 
A Brazilian cavalry force from Rio Grande was defeated at Samandi. Buenos 
Ayres was jealous of the Imperial foothold of the Rio de la Plata and soon 
declared war against Brazil. The Imperial navy blockaded Buenos Ayres and 
Brawn's Argentine fleet blockaded Colonia. In 1826 General Alvear took 
command of the Argentine forces in the Banda Oriental. The usual dissen- 
tions soon broke out between Alvear and Lavelleja but the advance of a 
strong Brazilian force kept the patriot leaders from fighting. The Argentine 
with his usual dash invaded Rio Grande. The Brazilians got in his rear but 
like Belgrano at Tucuman he forced his antagonist, Marquis Barbacena to 
attack. On February 20, 1827 the Marquis was defeated at Ituzaingo and 
the Brazilian offensive was at an end. Brown soon won the battle of Juncal 
and both rivals for the possession of Uruguay were anxious for peace. In 
1828 the two rival states agreed upon the independence of Uruguay and the 
war ended. General Rondeau a hero of the wars of independence became the 
f rst president of the new republic. 




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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




A.E. ViDAURRl SONS PRINT, LAREDO, TEXAS 



